Reporting Stockholders Equity

ckChapter 11 – Reporting and Analyzing Stockholders’ Equity I. Characteristics of a Corporation (Publicly held (closely held)) * Separate legal existence; * Limited liability of stockholders; limited to investment * Transferable ownership rights; * Ability to acquire capital; * Continuous life; * Corporation management: Shareholders Shareholders * Voting rights * Profit sharing * Preemptive right * Residual claim Board of Directors Board of Directors CEO(PRESIDENT) CEO(PRESIDENT) . other vps . other vps CIO CIO CFO CFO COO COO Treasurer Treasurer ControllerController * Government regulations; file application with state government-> corportate charter by-law * Additional taxes. Double taxation II. Stock Issue 1. Basics of Stock Issue: (1) Authorized Stock: The maximum amount of stock that a corporation is authorized to sell by corporate charter. (2) Outstanding Stock: Capital stock that has been issued and is being held by stockholders. Legal capital= # of issued shares x par value per share (3) Par Value Stock: Capital stock that has been assigned an arbitrary value per share in the corporate charter. 4) No-par value Stock: Capital stock that has not been assigned a value in the corporate charter. (5) Stated Value of No-par value Stock: Value per share assigned by the board of directors to no-par value stock. Authorized Issued Outstanding (6) Paid-in Capital: Amount paid to corporation by stockholders for shares of ownership. (7) Retained Earnings: Earned capital held for future use in the business. 2. Accounting for Common Stock Issues: (1) Issuing Stock at Par Example 1: On March 1, 2002, XYZ Company issued 10,000 shares of $10 par value common stock at par. (2) Issuing Stock above ParExample 2: On June 10, XYZ Company issued 5,000 shares of $10 par value common stock at $12 per share. Cash 60,000(=5,000Ãâ€"12) Common Stock50,000 Additional paid in capital14,000 (Paid in capital in excess of par) What if the common stock issued on June 10 is n o par stock with a stated value of $10? Cash60,000 Common Stock50,000 Additional Paid in capital10,000 3. Treasury Stock: * A corporation’s own stock that has been issued, fully paid for, and reacquired by the corporation but not retired. * Issued but not outstanding (1) Corporations acquire treasury stock to †¦ reissue shares to employees under bonus and stock compensation plans; * increase trading of company’s stock in securities market to enhance market value; * reduce number of shares outstanding , and therefore increase earnings per share (EPS); * prevent a hostile takeover. (2) Purchasing Treasury Stock: * Cost method: Treasury stock is increased by the amount paid to reacquire the shares, and is decreased by the same amount when the shares are later sold. Example 3: On October 15, 2002, XYZ Company acquired 2,000 shares of the stock issued on June 10 in Example 2 at $9 per share.On the balance sheet: Stockholders equity Paid in capital Common stock (par) Ad ditional paid in capital Retained earnings Less: Treasury stock (a contra equity account) * Effect of purchasing treasury stock on common stock: * Effect of purchasing treasury stock on stockholders’ equity: III. Preferred Stock * Preferred stock has contractual provisions that give it preferences over common stock in dividends and assets in the event of liquidation. * Preferred stockholders do not have voting rights. Example 4: On November 5, 2002, XYZ Company issued 5,000 shares of $10 par value preferred stock for $13 per share.Cash65,000 Preferred Stock50,000 Additional Paid in capital15,000 1. Dividend Preference * Preferred stockholders have the right to share in the distribution of corporate income before common stockholders; * The first claim to dividends does not guarantee dividends; * Cumulative Dividends: Preferred stockholders receive current and unpaid prior-year dividends before common stockholders receive any dividends. When dividends are cumulative, preferred dividends that were not declared in a given period are called dividends in arrears. Example 5:XYZ Company issued 10,000 shares of 10%, $5 par value cumulative preferred stock On January 1, 1999. XYZ had not declared any dividends until December 31, 2002. 1999: 10,000x 5 x 10% = 5,000 2000: 5,000 2001: 5,000 2002:5,000 Dec 31, 02: $20,000 in cash * Dividends in arrears are not liability. They should be disclosed in the notes to financial statements. 2. Liquidation Preference- Creditors Prefered stock holders common stock holders IV. Dividends * A distribution by the corporation to the stockholders on a pro rata basis. 1.Cash Dividends: (1) To pay a cash dividend, a company must have: * retained earnings * adequate cash * declared dividends (2) Some Important Dates: * Declaration date: the date the board of directors formally authorizes the cash dividends and announces it to stockholders. Retained earnings Dividends payable * Record date: The date ownership of outstanding shares is de termined for dividend purposes. * Payment date: The date dividends are paid. Dividends payable Cash * Cumulative effect of declaration and payment of cash dividends on accounting equation: 2. Stock Dividends: Companies pay stock dividends to †¦ * Satisfy stockholders’ dividend expectations without paying cash; * Increase the marketability of its stock; * Emphasize that a portion of stockholders’ equity has been permanently reinvested in the business. * Small Stock Dividend: If the stock dividend is less than 20%-25% of the corporation’s issued stock, it is recorded at the fair market value per share. * Large Stock Dividend: If the stock dividend is greater than 20%-25% of the corporation’s issued stock, it is recorded at par or stated value per share. Example 6:On February 1, 2003, the balance of XYZ Company’s retained earnings was $2,500,000. XYZ Company declared a 15% stock dividend on its 100,000 shares of $10 par value common stock. The cu rrent fair market value of XYZ Company’s stock is $13 per share. Retained earnings195,000 Stock dividend Distributable150,000 Additional paid in capital45,000 On March 1, 2003, XYZ Company issued the dividend shares. Stock dividend distributable 150,000 Common Stock150,000 – Effect of stock dividends on stockholders’ equity and its components: S/E Retained earnings195,000 (Decrease)Common Stock150,000 (Increase) Additonal paid in capital45,000 (Increase) NET EFFECT: No change V. Stock Splits: * The issuance of additional shares of stock to stockholders accompanied by: * A reduction in the par or stated value; * An increase in number of shares. No entry * Effect of stock splits on stockholders’ equity and its components: S/E Common Stock (Par value per share x total # of issued shares) Add. Paid in capital Retained Earnings VI. Retained Earnings: * Net income that is retained in the business. Revenues (Credit, transfer to credit of income)Income Summary(Tr ansfer N. I to retained earnings credit) Retained Earnings Expenses (Transfer debit to debid of income summary) * Deficit: a debit balance in retained earnings. Deficit is reported as a deduction in stockholders’ equity on the balance sheet. * Retained earnings restrictions- Debt covenants VII. Financial Statement Presentation: 1. Balance Sheet S/E Paid-in-capital Common stock (par value) Preferred stock (par value) Additional paid in capital Retained earnings Less: Treasury Stock 2. Statement of Cash Flows Cash Flows from Financing ActivitiesIssuance of stock (cash inflows) Repurchase of stock (cash outflows) Dividend payment (cash outflows) VIII. Ratio Analysis: 1. Dividend Record * Payout Ratio: Cash dividends declared on common stock/ Net income 2. Earnings Performance * Return on common stockholders’ equity ratio: (NI-Prefered stockholders dividends)/Average common stockholders equity 3. Debt versus Equity Decision | Bond| Common Stock| Owners’ Control| Not affected| Diluted| Tax Benefit| Bond interests are tax deductible| Dividends are not deductible| Financial Ratio(EPS)| Not affected| Lower| Fixed payment| Yes | No|

Collaborative Fund-Raising Activit Essay

The Phoenix Homeless Agency (PHA) needs to increase funding to continue funding job counseling to qualifying recipients. While they regularly access traditional contracts and grants, the economy has increased the need for services immensely and required them to look for other sources. The Executive Director and Board of Directors have begun their search by using the internet, other agencies, and community networking. They have decided that there are three options that would yield revenue while also keeping costs under control so that they have money left over for their program; appealing to local government officials, contacting local businesses for donations, and holding a strong public donation campaign. First, by contacting local government officials the agency may access information about funding that is available to community agencies that are not related to federal or state traditional grants and contracts. These may include United Way, connections to people who may wish to donate, grants from large out-of the area businesses and foundations, or city donations to help people find work. They may also employ grant writers who may be able to help organization understand the locating and writing process to achieve better results. Second, local businesses are often feeling the pinch of the economy as hard as individuals. They understand that people need help and will donate products to be sold in exchange for tax donation credit. These donations could either be sold or used within the program; either raising money by their sale or saving the program money, respectively. Ultimately, the people they help may become their future employees and/or consumers; people remember who helped them when they were in dire straights. Auctions, in-kind trade of services, and door-to-door product sales may raise money which can be helpful in the continuation of the program with very little if any cost. Lastly, the option to run a strong donation drive within the community may be quite successful. This agency has been helping the local people for many years and many will wish to see it continue its work. At a time when support may be needed the most, communities tend to rally behind local agencies rather than donate to larger, more nationally-based organizations because they can see the way their money is being spent. Asking people for money is never a pleasant or easy task, but when the option is ceasing to exist, it must be done. Appealing to individuals helps pull the community together and provides much needed assistance to agencies.

Social Responsibility, Consumerism, and the Marketing Concept

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY, CONSUMERISM, AND THE MARKETING CONCEPT Robert D. Winsor, Loyola Marymount University ABSTRACT This paper compares the often-criticized â€Å"selling orientation† or â€Å"selling concept† with the commonly-praised â€Å"societal marketing concept â€Å"from the perspectives of consumer rationality and persuasibility. It is suggested that both orientations view consumers as relatively irrational and as easily prone to manipulation by marketers. The implications of this similarity are explored from the perspectives of consumerism and social responsibility. INTRODUCTIONCritics of marketing have consistently attacked the discipline for discounting consumers' intelligence and capacity for rational choice and for deliberately confounding consumers in their efforts to make rational, informed, unbiased, and free economic choices. At the same time, societal trends have pushed U. S. businesses in the direction of increasing concern for social issues and a ttention to long-run consumer welfare. The aforementioned criticisms and pressures for increasing social responsibility are largely driven by the same social paradigms and constituents.Yet, it is noteworthy that the ultimate result of an expanded social responsibility of business is the concomitant diminishment of free consumer choice. Moreover, this obstruction of consumer discretion is the inevitable consequence of presumptions of consumer irrationality. Thus, while groups such as consumerists have often criticized marketers explicitly for rejecting notions of consumer rationality, these same groups and sentiments have forcefully promoted the social responsibility of business and the societal marketing concept as advancements in business thought and practice.As a result, contradictions can be seen to exist within the consumerist agenda, and are apparent (but unacknowledged) in the â€Å"societal marketing concept† and calls for increasing the responsibility of business towa rd social issues and concerns. The goal of this paper is to expose these contradictions and to elaborate upon their implications for business and society in general. THE EVOLUTION OF THE MARKETING CONCEPT In January of 1960, the marketing discipline entered a new age.In this year, we were presented with no ground-breaking theory, no pioneering methodology, no brilliant adaptation of another discipline's construct, and no monumental grant. We were, however, given something we would come to treasure much more highly than any of these. We were provided a raison d'etre and a philosophical foundation. It was on this date that the Journal of Marketing published an article by Robert Keith (1960) entitled â€Å"The Marketing Revolution. And, since its publication, marketers have been able to feel justified in believing that their efforts were not only indispensable, but that they have been instrumental in bringing about sweeping improvements in the evolution of business practice. Although the revolution described by Keith has been tamed to become the â€Å"evolution† of the marketing concept, and the generalizablity of the evolution it described has been questioned by some (e. g. Fullerton, 1988), the transformation in American business described by Keith's model has nonetheless served as a source of explanation and justification for marketing academicians.The â€Å"post-evolution† marketers have been lent a degree of dignity and a sense of purpose which was conspicuously lacking before. Prior to this date, marketers were perceived to be at best superfluous, and at worst dishonest or unscrupulous. Not that the average citizen considers marketing in any different light today, but the belief in an evolution of the marketing concept has allowed the academic marketing community a certain degree of self-respect. In his article, Keith described four â€Å"eras† or periods of thought and practice through which his organization, The Pillsbury Company, pr ogressed.Keith believed that these eras were characteristic of most businesses which were contemporaries of Pillsbury, and thus speculated that an overall movement was in evidence. Since the publication of Keith's article, other writers have modified, refined, and extended the basic thesis advancing this evolutionary process: The most noteworthy and well-known of these descriptions is that of Philip Kotler. Kotler describes five alternative concepts or philosophies through which most businesses have evolved.Although any given business can operate under any of the philosophies, the underlying precept of the evolution thesis is that these philosophies form a hierarchy, with later philosophies being superior to those of earlier eras (Keith, 1960; Kotler, 1994). The implication is that to move from a lower level (earlier) philosophy to that on a higher level (later) is not only insightful, but also good business. The first eras or business philosophies are termed the â€Å"product† and the â€Å"production† concepts.The product concept emphasizes product quality and/or performance, and assumes that at least some consumers are knowledgeable enough to recognize and respect superior attributes in these areas. The production concept focuses upon systems for producing large volumes of products in an effort to drive down costs by exploiting economies of scale. This philosophy is based upon the assumption that most consumers not only recognize, but prefer high value (benefits – price) offerings and are knowledgeable and rational in selecting among alternative products.A later era is known as the selling concept, and is based upon the premise that consumers are relatively uninformed regarding product attributes, or base their selection upon fashion or other â€Å"non-rational† criteria. Moreover, this orientation assumes that consumers are easily influenced. As a result, organizations employing the selling concept typically resort to aggressive selling and promotional efforts, with the goal of seducing or coercing customers into purchasing the product. A considerably higher plane of enlightenment is represented by the marketing concept era.The marketing concept is considered to be a quantum leap up the evolutionary hierarchy, and continues to be embraced by a great number of marketing scholars and businesses. The marketing concept â€Å"holds that the key to achieving organizational goals consists in determining the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors† (Kotler, 1994, p. 18; 1977a). The motto of the marketing concept is â€Å"find a need and fill it,† and its credo is â€Å"The Customer is King. Like the product and production concepts, but unlike the selling concept, the marketing concept is founded upon the assumption that consumers are knowledgeable, intelligent, and rational, and base their product purchases upon a c areful consideration of the relationship between their own needs and product attributes. As a result, the fundamental premise of the marketing concept becomes a focus on the consumer as the pivotal point for all business activity (Barksdale and Darden, 1971).The thinking underlying the marketing concept was espoused as early as the 1940's and 1950's (Samli, Palda, and Barker, 1987; Bell and Emory, 1971). In 1958 the term â€Å"marketing concept† was coined to describe the philosophy behind this approach (see McKitterick, 1958), and â€Å"by 1965 practically all introductory marketing texts included some discussion of the ‘new' marketing concept† (Bell & Emory, 197 1). The reason that the marketing concept was considered a major breakthrough in business philosophy is that it represented the antithesis of the product, production, and selling concepts.Rather than taking an existing product and endeavoring to modify demand for it by adding features, reducing price, o r varying promotional technique, the marketing concept holds that businesses should first determine the existing needs in the marketplace and then design and produce a product to satisfy this need. In this sense the marketing concept is driven by the needs of the marketplace, rather than the existing abilities of the firm.The fifth, and supposedly highest stage of evolution in marketing philosophies is what Kotler terms the societal marketing concept. In each of his writings referencing the marketing concept, Kotler (1972, 1977b, 1994) clearly states his belief that the societal marketing concept embodies a higher and more enlightened plane of marketing thought and practice, and suggests that this new concept represents an attempt to harmonize the goals of business to the occasionally conflicting goals of society.As such, it postulates that the â€Å"the organization's task is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of target markets and to deliver the desired satisfactions mo re effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way that preserves or enhances the consumer's and society's well-being (Kotler, 1994, p. 29). It should be noted that the societal marketing concept is founded upon one dominant and critical proposition.This is the assumption that â€Å"consumers' wants do not always coincide with their long-run interests or society's long-run interests,† and that, given this, marketers should place the â€Å"emphasis on ‘long-run consumer and societal well being† (Kotler, 1977b). As a result, the societal marketing concept represents an endorsement and justification for the social responsibility of business in contemporary society, and a refutation of Milton Friedman's infamous assertion that â€Å"the social responsibility of business is to make a profit† (Friedman, 1962). THE CONSUMERISM MOVEMENT AS THE CATALYST FOR THESOCIETAL MARKETING CONCEPT The latest consumerism movement is a cause that has been accumulating mom entum for over 30 years in the U. S. , and its disciples assert that all consumers have an inherent right to products which are: safe in use (and even misuse), effective for the use designed, economical, reliable, honestly labeled and advertised, and benign in their impacts upon the environment. Moreover, consumerists have been very proactive in seeing that these â€Å"rights† are guaranteed to individual consumers, either by the firms selling the products, or by the government of this country.Adherents of consumerism tend to believe that businesses are so overwhelmingly motivated by the desire to make a profit that they commonly compromise the quality of the product offerings, thereby jeopardizing the safety of consumers. Consumerists cite examples of this â€Å"greed,† such as the Beech-Nut case involving the sale over 10 years of millions of cases of â€Å"apple juice† which was in reality only sweetened, flavored water (Business Week, 1988).The fact that suc h a large number and variety of these cases exist and continue to be exposed on a regular basis lends a great deal of credibility to the consumerism movement and its underlying assumptions. In explaining the rise of consumerism, Peter Drucker blamed the marketers for failing their consumers and publics in using the marketing concept: We have asked ourselves where in the marketing concept consumerism fits or belongs. I have come to the conclusion that, so far, the only way one can really define it within the total marketing concept is as the shame of the total marketing concept.It is essentially a mark of failure of the concept†¦ (Drucker, 1969) This quote is now famous to marketing practitioners, scholars, and critics alike, and the legitimacy of Drucker's view is generally conceded. In the same year that Drucker made this accusation, Business Week (1969) also asserted that â€Å"In the very broadest sense, consumerism can be defined as the bankruptcy of what the business scho ols have been calling the ‘marketing concept. â€Å"‘ These condemnations of the marketing concept reflected a general assumption within both the business and academic spheres regarding the implications of consumerism's growing popularity.A substantial portion of scholars and managers surveyed in 1971, for example, believed that the rise in consumerism was a direct reflection of the inadequacy of the marketing concept (Barksdale and Darden, 1971). As the presumed response to the failure of the marketing concept, then, the consumerist movement became the foundation for â€Å"a revised marketing concept† which Kotler (1972) proposed as the successor to the â€Å"failed† marketing concept. As in earlier stages of the marketing philosophy evolution, the â€Å"societal marketing concept† was ostensibly constructed upon the ruins of its immediate predecessor.Since the most recent consumerist movement in the U. S. served as the catalyst for today's concept ualization and implementation of the societal marketing concept, it would seem important to understand the modern origins of this movement. ORIGINS OF THE MODERN CONSUMERISM MOVEMENT Writing in 1987, the Auto Editors of Consumer Guide described one car as â€Å"perhaps the most sophisticated (certainly one of the most ambitious) cars ever to come from Detroit† (Langworth and Robson, 1987, p. 51). These authors went on to proclaim that these were â€Å"the kind of cars we should have had in the 1970's, and didn't. The car was the Chevrolet Corvair of the 1960's, and its conspicuous absence in the 1970's was the direct result of what many consider to be both consumerism's explosive postwar debut and also its finest hour. Indeed, the tomb of the Corvair became the foundation of consumerism as we know it today. While business historian's (e. g. , Halberstam, 1986) are eager to criticize Detroit's apparent indifference and ineptitude regarding the 1970's invasion of small, econom ical automobiles from foreign countries and the oil crisis which precipitated this invasion, this blame has been clearly misplaced and undeserved.In 1959, General Motors, acknowledging an existing need in the marketplace for a small, inexpensive, sporty, and fuel-efficient automobile, designed and marketed a vehicle to fill this need. This automobile, the Corvair, was indeed revolutionary in many respects, having four-wheel independent suspension, a rear-mounted air-cooled six-cylinder engine, the option of turbo-charging (a first), and an exhaust system design which would be used on a majority of automobiles for years to come.Both the Corvair and its functional, but considerably more primitive predecessor, the Volkswagen Beetle, were designed, built, and marketed with the highest regard for the marketing concept–offering lower-income consumers the opportunity to own an economical, reliable, and fun-todrive automobile. Both cars were strong sellers, and appeared to satisfy a number of preexisting needs in the marketplace. In 1960, Consumer Reports praised the Volkswagen for its good workmanship, and handling and roadability which were â€Å"well ahead of the U.S. average†. Additionally, about the worst thing that Consumer Reports could find to say about the Corvair was a remark about its â€Å"unimpressive trim quality† (cf. Abernathy, Clark, and Kantrow, 1983). Unfortunately for many consumers, Ralph Nader would use these cars as a catapult for his career, and in so doing, would become synonymous with the consumerism movement. In 1965 he wrote a book entitled Unsafe at Any Speed, in which he criticized General Motors as being irresponsible, greedy, and unconcerned for the public's safety.Nader used the Corvair as the book's primary example, developing an elaborate, scathing, but also relatively misplaced criticism of the Corvair. Due to the negative publicity which the book generated, the book dealt a death blow to the Corvair, which imme diately began a downward sales spiral toward its eventual extinction in 1969. Inspired by the â€Å"success† of Unsafe at Any Speed, an equivalently brutal and faulty criticism of the Volkswagen Beetle was written in 1971 by a colleague and ally of Nader, and was entitled Small—On Safety (Dodge, 197 1).Since, by the time of this book's publication, millions of Volkswagens were on the road and were well-regarded as providing reliable, economical, and serviceable transportation, the book failed to achieve any credibility, and did little harm to Volkswagen's sales. What should have been evident to readers of either book and to consumers in general, but was perhaps not appreciated until much later, was that it was physically impossible to construct a small economy car which was as safe as the leviathan Cadillacs, Lincolns, and Chryslers of the same period.Had a well-designed car such as the Honda Civic (or any other contemporary compact automobile) been introduced into the market in the 1960's, it too would have certainly been labeled as unsafe, and forced off the market. THE SOCIETAL MARKETING CONCEPT AND THEORY X The societal marketing concept is largely congruent with the â€Å"multiple constituency model of organizations† (Kimery and Rinehart, 1998), and general notions of the responsibility or obligation of businesses to social and environmental stakeholders.Contrasted to the marketing concept or orientation, which posits the direct and simple relationship between organizational profitability and responsiveness to customer needs and concerns, the societal marketing concept or multiple constituency model suggests that success is highly dependent upon an organization's attentiveness to all constituencies simultaneously (Kimery and Rinehart, 1998). Yet due to the common opposition between immediate consumer needs and long-term societal and individual needs, the simultaneous â€Å"satisfaction† of all of these demands is frequently dif ficult if not impossible.Moreover, the focus upon â€Å"un-stated† or long-term customer needs and a concomitant discounting of stated consumer desires have distinct overtones of corporate or governmental paternalism and the assumptions of producer or governmental sovereignty, which this perspective necessarily implies. In short, where the marketing concept is the economic equivalent of the democratic process, the societal marketing concept is antithetical to the tenets of democratic equality and more comparable to economic fascism.In an eloquent paper outlining the conceptual foundations of his societal marketing concept, Kotler adapted Douglas McGregor's managerial â€Å"Theory X / Theory Y† to illustrate alternative perspectives of customers (Kotler, 1977b). According to McGregor, Theory X managers view their employees as being lazy, ignorant, gullible, suspicious, and disloyal. In contrast, Theory Y managers view their employees as informed, intelligent, motivated, unique, and rational (McGregor, 1957, 1985).In his adaptation, Kotler makes the assertion that businesses subscribing to the philosophy embodied within the societal marketing concept make assumptions about their customers which are consistent with Theory Y (as opposed to Theory X). In other words, Kotler believes that the societal marketing concept is philosophically consonant with a perspective of the consumer as informed, intelligent, and rational, suggesting the higher plane of enlightenment shared by adopters of this concept and alluding to the concept's supposed capacity for consumer empowerment.Although Kotler makes a valuable contribution in adapting this managerial framework to the marketing discipline, he grossly errs in his interpretation. A far more plausible observation is that the societal marketing concept is solidly built upon Theory X assumptions about consumers on the part of the marketer. According to Kotler (1977b), â€Å"societal marketers are more attuned to t he buyers' unexpressed needs than overexpressed wants,† and place an emphasis upon â€Å"long-run consumer and societal well being. Because of this, the societal marketing concept clearly forces or compels marketers to make judgments about what is â€Å"best† for consumers, and what needs are valid (as opposed to those that are spurious or unwholesome). It is in this way that the societal marketing concept becomes the ultimate subscriber and underwriter to the Theory X mentality. The conceptual foundation of the societal marketing concept (as well as of the consumerism movement) rests eavily upon the belief that the individual consumer is unable to â€Å"look out for him/herself,† is gullible, ignorant, easily misled, does not know what is actually in his/her own best interest, and thus needs to be protected from powerful and unscrupulous marketers. In this way, the belief that the role of the marketer is to interpret what is â€Å"best† for society and i ndividuals necessitates the assumption that individuals do not and cannot know what is best for themselves. Nor is this an overstatement of the societal marketing concept's goals and assumptions.Bell and Emory (1971, p. 40), proponents of this concept, assert that â€Å"The typical consumer is at such a disadvantage that he cannot assure his own effectiveness. Business has the responsibility to help him, and if business fails then the government or other parties must act on the consumer's behalf. † In addition, in circumstances â€Å"where the buyer is unwilling or unable to make rational decisions,† Bell and Emory believe that â€Å"It is the duty of business to promote proper consumption values† (Bell & Emory, 197 1, p. 40, emphasis added).Yet these are precisely the â€Å"paternalistic† attitudes which characterize the Theory X â€Å"manager† according to McGregor. The fact that some consumers may choose to buy a subcompact automobile because th ey prefer economy over a certain degree of safety, or that some choose to subsist on McDonald's hamburgers, fries and milkshakes despite their â€Å"unhealthfullness† does not imply that these individuals are stupid, or gullible, or that they need to be â€Å"enlightened† by consumerism or societal marketing techniques, This is in fact the precise point at which the â€Å"evolution† of the marketing concept breaks down.The marketing concept holds that marketers should strive to supply products for every consumer need, provided these needs are not grossly threatening to society, and that â€Å"any decision the customer makes to serve his own perceived selfinterest is rational† (Bauer & Greyser, 1967). It is thus impossible to interpret the societal marketing concept as anything but a move backward into the period where the selling concept ruled–where consumers were â€Å"ignorant,† â€Å"irrational,† and easily anipulated by more insig htful marketers. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS While consumerists and other critics of the selling concept regularly and loudly chastise business organizations for employing marketing strategies and campaigns which are ostensibly based upon assumptions of consumer ignorance and irrationality, these same guardians of consumer interest are typically synonymous with those pushing organizations most forcefully into programs of social responsibility and the societal marketing concept.Yet, as noted above, the agenda of social responsibility in business is clearly based upon assumptions of equal (or even greater) degrees of consumer ignorance and irrationality. Disciples of the societal marketing concept appear to be largely oblivious to the relatively absurd levels that businesses have been pushed by forces in concert with their agenda. (Witness the warning on McDonald's coffee cups: â€Å"Caution: HOT! . . . CAUTION: CONTENTS HOT! †¦ Caution: HOT! . . . Caution: HOT! . . . WARNING: HOT! †¦ /! .. † which are combined with a corollary reduction in the temperature of the liquid itself — actions which were necessitated by the infamous multimillion dollar legal claim against the company — a lawsuit which was applauded by numerous consumerist groups. ) But, as Levitt noted in 1958, â€Å"self-conscious dedication to social responsibility may have started as a purely defensive maneuver against strident attacks on big corporations and on the moral efficacy of the profit system. But defense alone no longer explains the motive. The motive for corporate social responsibility and the overwhelming push for social responsibility in the pursuit of sales now arises out of the industrial sector's near-total dependence on social trends and the sentiment of a minority of consumers. Corporations that have been beaten into submission by frivolous lawsuits and that are afraid to arouse consumerist accusations of indifference have been forced to pander to t he lowest common denominator of consumer passivity, ignorance, and laziness.As predicted by McGregor, these Theory X attitudes and actions have subsequently bred and reinforced the very passivity, ignorance, and laziness in consumers they were designed to anticipate and amend. Ironically, the similarities between the selling concept and the societal marketing concept regarding their shared assumption of consumer ignorance can be seen as forming the perfect foundation for either societal altruism or, alternatively, opportunistic exploitation.In many cases, these efforts can be difficult to distinguish from one another, and apparent acts of altruism or social responsibility can provide the perfect camouflage for exploitation. Because organizations are rapidly becoming aware of the power of â€Å"greenconsumers,† for example, there is a significant temptation to advance this agenda through the marketing program as a powerful device for cultivating customer loyalty and anesthetiz ing consumer prudence and vigilance.As Kotler (1994, p. 30) notes, â€Å"a number of companies have achieved notable sales and profit gains through adopting and practicing the societal marketing concept. † One of the two shining examples Kotler cites is The Body Shop, started by Anita Roddick in 1976. This organization has experienced phenomenal sales growth by actively promoting its products as all-natural, environmentally friendly, and non-animal-tested, and its business practices as sociallyconcerned.Moreover, Roddick has frequently and publicly ridiculed other cosmetics companies, noting that they are â€Å"run by men who create needs that don't exist† (Zinn, 1991). Indeed, The Body Shop became in the 1980's the prototype that all â€Å"earth-friendly† businesses would seek to emulate. As the vanguard of social responsibility, The Body Shop and its founder became the beneficiary of huge volumes of positive publicity, international acclaim, and consumer goodw ill.Yet recent explorations into The Body Shop's products and business practices have found elements which yield a stark contrast to the public images and perceptions noted above. Products of the company have been found to be largely petrochemical-based and of relatively poor-quality, and a large proportion of them have been tested on animals. In addition, the â€Å"socially-enlightened† business practices of this company have been exposed as creative public relations efforts, and the FTC has nvestigated the firm for fraudulent business dealings (Entine, 1993; Buszka, 1997). Clearly, it must inevitably be those organizations which are encouraged to view their consumers as ignorant or irrational that can and will most easily extend that notion to discover opportunities for exploiting that ignorance and irrationality. It is for this reason that those espousing the societal marketing concept and the social responsibility of business can be seen as the greatest danger to consumer sovereignty and consumer welfare.As Lord Acton observed, power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Yet it is a corollary rule that in reducing one individual's power, all others with whom that person deals have their relative power increased. By forcing consumers into the roles of ignorant, helpless, and mindless children in need of protection and corporate welfare, advocates of the societal marketing concept have liberated consumers from both responsibility and power, and have concomitantly made business more powerful. REFERENCES Abernathy, W. 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Dodge, Lowell (1972), Small–On Safety: The Designed-In Dangers of the Volkswagen, New York: Grossman. Drucker, P. (1958), â€Å"Marketing and Economic Development,† Journal of Marketing, (January), (252-259). _________(1969), Consumerism: The Opportunity of Marketing,† address before the National Association of Manufacturers, New York, April 10, later printed as â€Å"The Shame of Marketing,† Marketing Co mmunications, August, 1969, 60. Entine, Jon (1994), â€Å"Shattered Image: Is the Body Shop Too Good to Be True? † Business Ethics, (September/October). Friedman, Milton (1962), Capitalism and Freedom, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fullerton, Ronald A. (1988), â€Å"How Modern is Modern Marketing? Marketing's Evolution and the Myth of the ‘Production Era,'† Journal of Marketing, 52 (January), 108-125.Halberstam, David (1986), The Reckoning, New York: Avon Books. Keith, R. (1960), â€Å"The Marketing Revolution,† Journal of Marketing, 24(January), 35-3 8. Klein, T. 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Langworth, Richard M. nd Graham Robson (1987), The Complete Book of Collectible Cars, 1930-1980, New York: Beekman House. Levitt, T. (1958), â€Å"The Dangers of Social Responsibility,† Harvard Business Review, 36, 5(September-October), 41-50. _______(1960), â€Å"Marketing Myopia,† Harvard Business Review, (July-August). _______(1977), â€Å"Marketing When Thin gs Change,† Journal of Marketing, (NovemberDecember), 107-113. McGregor, D. (1957), â€Å"The Human Side of Enterprise,† Management Review (November), 22-28. McGregor, D. (1985), The Human Side of Enterprise, New York: McGraw-Hill.McKitterick, J. (1958), â€Å"What is the Marketing Management Concept? † in The Frontiers of Marketing Thought and Science, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 71-82. Nader, Ralph (1965), Unsafe At Any Speed: The Designed In Dangers of the American Automobile, New York: Grossman. Samli, A. , K. Palda, and A. Barker (1987), â€Å"Toward a Mature Marketing Concept,† Sloan Management Review (Winter), 45-5 1. Zinn, Laura (1991), â€Å"Whales, Human Rights, Rain Forests — And the Heady Smell of Profits,† Business Week, July 15, 114-115.

Arab Views of Europeans 1578-1727 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Arab Views of Europeans 1578-1727 - Essay Example And given the fantasy and the Orientalism that marked early modern and modern European perceptions of Arabs and Muslims, did Occidentalism evolve in Arab-islamic thought? Did the military polarisation that marked the two shores of the Mediterranean produce an Arab fantasy and invention similar to that characterising a large amount of Europeans about Muslims. (p. 127) From the start, Matar have recognized that majority of the historians and scholars believed that the degree of interest of the Arabs and Muslims in Latin Christendom is significantly lower than what was shown by the Europeans in the Far East. He pointed to two prevailing schools of thought that explain this attitude: First, the Europeans are generally viewed as barbarians because of their heathen religion that teaches a theology, which, according to Quran, is false and distorted; Second, the European society has been seen as inferior to the Arab world because of the Muslim belief that the heritage of the Middle Ages have given them the edge over the Europeans. The corpus of the Islamic literature on the subject has shown a degree of hostility towards the West which clouds the existing curiosity over the other civilization. This hostility would further grow as the West asserted its hegemony in the course of its colonisation efforts. Matar, however, added an interesting insight to this variable. According to him, the disinterest, as has been comprehensively illustrated by the various sources, permeated in the Ottoman territory and those within the reach of its influence. He cited the case of Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria who, in their history and literature, have spoken about the Europeans quite extensively, displaying a level of interest that is unprecedented elsewhere in the Islamic world. He took note of the fact that the Moroccan elite were educated and have in their disposal a high level of literacy that have made up with the lack of printing machines that could have made the mass production of

Business Commutations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Commutations - Essay Example Also, it will prepare employees for future positions with greater responsibility. The problem with the culture is that part time employees are not eligible as its only full-time employees who work 40 hours a week. Another problem encountered is some employees may want to do courses in unaccredited institutions. The management at times gets some hard times as employees may choose courses that are not aligned with their profession. Rogers Corporation has come up with the solutions to these challenges. One is that the tuition assistance program will be suitable to the employees that will have worked for 90 days. The institutions where the employees are to take their courses it must be accredited for quality purposes. To curb irrelevant courses the employee’s department manager must pre-approve the courses to be done. It is apparent that employees who do well in the courses tend to have a positive impact in the company due to the skills obtained. Rogers Corporation has embraced a tuition assistance program for their employees to have that competitive edge in the business world. The formal education taken by the employees is also classified as online courses and special technical courses that are not offered by higher education institution. The reason Rogers Corporation encourages such courses is for the employees to be empowered with more skills that will upgrade the performance of the company in service delivery. Also, it helps the employees to be diverse and ready for the future positions they will hold. The employees also get to add value in the decisions they make at their departments. One problem that is expected is that some employees may claim that they will spend much on the books and course related materials. The corporation has set up a cover to the books and course related materials. As for those employees who find it difficult to go back and study. The Corporation is to provide $5000 in reimbursement for completed courses as a motivation. One

Digital Marketing Aspects of Musclefood Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Digital Marketing Aspects of Musclefood - Essay Example However, getting engaged in digital marketing techniques includes factors related with the technological compatibility of the firm and the ability of the digital platform to fulfil the organizational as well as consumer needs. This report will focus on designing the digital marketing aspects of Musclefood for improving their marketing techniques. The existing website of Musclefood has been designed by focusing only on the product and service base of the company meanwhile elements such as company information, sustainability policies, business partners, etc has been highlighted in blind spots. The company has a policy of visual content which can be seen by the limited words used for describing the content and navigation of the webpage. It was also evaluated that some subjects such as the customer feedback and deals sections are taking too much space. Although the website included interactivity but it was limited to only few portions such as the primary promotional belt of the webpage. In addition, multiple tabs have been given for highlighting various product segments, which has clamped the webpage. The praiseworthy aspect of the existing web page is the navigational system. All the tabs have automated dropdown boxes, which can easily help the customers in understanding the structure of the webpage. The above given diagram highlights the changes made in the website of Musclefood for improving the visualisation, interaction and navigation system of the website. The structure of the website has been altered in order to include more elements regarding the product and service structure of the company. It was noted that Musclefood tries to enhance their customer offerings by engaging in related diversification of their service and product base. Â   Â  

Public speaking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Public speaking - Essay Example The two goals contradicted each other, as Vietnams had threatened to attack US if their troops were not to be withdrawn from South Vietnams. For that reason, Nixon addressed the issue with a two sided mind. Paradoxically, Nixon imparts a withdrawal mode to his audience, a strategy that makes them feel like he cares so much for the Americans, and especially the American men in Vietnam. He acknowledges that American troops stand a higher risk in the attacked zones but concludes the sentence by mentioning that withdrawing implies a greater risk to the natives of the attached zones. Nixon considers it wise to analyse the situation in two ways to make the audience understand that withdrawal, as the solution suggested earlier, is a controversial action that worsens the situation. As matter of fact, the Nixon understands that his audience are Americans, who would want their men protected but keeps in mind that the outside world is also watching his action. Therefore, the speech is planned n ot only to please the immediate audience but ensure that the problem is effectively addressed. Nixon confidently convinces the audience that his speech is well advised, by mentioning that the decision being presented wasn’t his own opinion but an informed discussion with national Security Council, other crucial personnel as well as the president’s advisers. To ensure this confidence, the speech creates some sense of inductive reasoning, by first defining the problem, analysing the available solutions and drawing a generalised conclusion later on. Nixon explains the problem by describing the actions and motives of the enemy. According to Nixon, America has no enmity whatsoever with North Vietnam, in the past there had been no troops moving to attack Vietnam, neither had the south Vietnams attacked their opponents before . He at the same time mentions the existence of alliance with South Vietnams. These create some sense of reasoning to the audience that

Changing Workplace Culture through team leadership Research Paper

Changing Workplace Culture through team leadership - Research Paper Example Workplace culture is a very essential factor in the success of organizations because it determines the levels of employee motivation, and performance thereby influencing organizational performance accordingly. It is in the least incentive of any organization to have employees that are unengaged and ill motivated because this inevitably leads to low organizational outputs. The organizational leadership culture, the system of unspoken norms and assumptions that govern how managers operate, is unescapably a powerful and distinct element in the organizational culture. The fast changing and complex business environment today requires organizations to operate at a strategic position that matches the complexities and uncertainties presented to them to ensure sustained growth and success. In this regard, every organization needs to thoroughly assess its strategic leadership culture as the first step in moving towards the establishment of a culture that powerfully steer the organizational goa ls and objectives against all odds in the business environments. ... This has led to the move towards considering a change from the current bureaucratic style of leadership to team leadership to improve employee motivation, engagement, and productivity while reducing turnover and attaining sustainability for the organization. Literature Review A considerable amount of research has been completed in validation of the relationship between organizational culture, leadership culture, and employee levels of motivation, engagement, productivity, turnover, and organizational sustainability. Largely, most of the literature available is consistent insofar as the subject is concerned, that leadership culture influences organizational culture, and a complex interplay of these two factors is more likely to yield either positive or negative outcomes on employee motivation, performance and turnover. McGuire et al 2009 contends that organizations seeking to adapt to turbulent changes taking place in the fast paced complex business world need a new kind of leadership capability to reframe dilemmas, reinterpret options, and to reform operations for sustainability (McGuire et al, 2009). Jones argues that inter-relationships between leadership team members and their behaviors with one another as well as with their staff have an influence in shaping the culture of their organizations (Jones, 2012). Corrigan et al (2002) examine the relationship between levels of transformational, transactional, and laissez-fare leadership and measures of organizational culture and burnout (Corrigan et al, 2002); leaders who rate themselves high in transformational leadership also rate their organizational cultures as transformational. Similarly, subordinates who rate their leaders high in

Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 17

Accounting - Essay Example There may be mandatory precise formats and standards for statutory accounts. 3. Financial accounting must abide by predetermined accounting principles that are generally accepted whereas management accounting is basically an estimate, which emanates from the fact that exact figures required do not exist every time crucial decisions need to undertaken. 4. Financial accounting yields financial accounts usually prepared at the end of a trading period, mostly a year. On the other hand, management accounting yields accounts that are prepared at any time depending on the frequency at which the management requires such accounts. 2. Vertical analysis: every financial statement line item is expressed as a fraction of another. It helps managers to assess the proportion of an account with respect to other accounts over a particular period. 4. Operating budget: this enables managers to assess the variances of the budget from actual outcomes. It helps the management to plan business expenditure for a given period and maximize

A view from the bridge Essay Example for Free

A view from the bridge Essay Marco is very different to his brother Rodolfo, who is fair haired and pale, as he is dark skinned and has dark hair, so he is a typical Italian immigrant. At first, Eddie likes Marco very much as he is very strong and hard working. Another longshoreman describes Marco as a regular bull and Eddie himself says that hes a strong guy. The audience respect Marco very much as he works this hard to make money for his family, which is a very manly thing to do. He also matches Eddies ideas on what it means to be a man this way as he is working to save his family and he feels that it is his duty to do so. Eddie feels threatened by Marco because he is more masculine than he is, and this is shown when Marco lifts the chair to show that he is stronger than Eddie. Marco also shows the audience that he is more masculine than Eddie because he doesnt try to continually show his strength to the other characters like Eddie does, and when Eddie breaks the honour code by telling immigration about Marco and Rodolfo, Marco shows the audience again that he is stronger than Eddie because he wins the fight and kills Eddie. At this point the audience do not dislike Marco, even though he has killed Eddie, as Marco claims that Eddie, by telling immigration about them, has killed his wife and children, so Marco sees it as masculine to kill Eddie in retaliation to Eddie killing his family. Eddies views on masculinity, and his actions against those who are different to them, eventually lead to his own death, after he loses Catherine, Beatrice, and his name, so it could be argued that he had no choice but to fight to the death. Throughout the play, the Arthur Miller (the playwright) has carefully selected his language to make the audience view the characters exactly how he wants them to be viewed. For example, he wants us to view Eddie as a strong and caring character, although Miller has also made it clear that he has a low education. He has done this by making Eddie have poor communication skills, and Miller shows us this clearly as he cant hold an argument and he often breaks in the middle of his sentences and sometimes completely forgets what he is talking about if he is interrupted. For example, when he goes to Alfieri to see if there is anything the law can do to stop Catherine and Rodolfo marrying, every time Eddie is interrupted he has to repeat himself to remember what he is saying and he says Listen to me a minute! in frustration that he cannot communicate his ideas effectively, and Miller could have done this purposely to possibly make the audience feel sorry for Eddie towards the end of the play, possibly because he only attacked Marco because he was unable to express his feelings in any other way. Miller has intentionally contrasted Eddie with Marco and Rodolfo, as the audience gets the impression that they are competent of expressing what they think, and so Miller could also have done this purposely as well, as this could make the audience think that both Marco and Rodolfo are more masculine than Eddie because of this quality. Miller may possibly be trying to show the audience that every man shows his masculinity in one way or another, and possibly that the most important quality of all is communication, as the one character who lacks this in the play is Eddie, and the lack of this skill leads to his death. In the play A View from the Bridge the playwright Arthur Miller has shown how masculinity, and how people view it, can lead to hostility and aggression, and he has used Eddie, the protagonist, to help show these ideas to the audience. Overall, Miller has done this very effectively, as Eddies death at the end of the play shows the audience where a mans opinion and a lack of communication can end. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Miller section.

Self monitoring and intervention for ring fidgeting habit

Self monitoring and intervention for ring fidgeting habit Habits are said to form when utilizing the same behavior regularly and consistently in a similar situation for the same purpose. They are performed with minimal thinking and little deliberation; and can be considered an automatising of behaviour. While efficiency in cognitive capabilities is achieved; habits cause information to be ignored, never influencing performance of the habit; as outcomes as a result of the habit are overly satisfactory. It has been suggested that good intentions are not acted upon if interfered by the habit; meaning the short term rewards become opposing to long term intentions. It is then that behaviours are identified as bad habits, habits that involve actions providing positive outcomes in the short term, but causing negative outcomes in the long run; including nervous habits, motor tics and stuttering. Nervous habits are defined as unchanging, automatic behaviours that do not serve any social purpose. Examples include hand to head habits such as nail biting or hair pulling; oral habits such as lip or tongue biting; or any repetitive movement such as scratching or object manipulation. Hansen, Tishelman, Hawkins Doepke (1990) and Woods, Miltenberger, Flach, (1996), suggest that hand to head and oral habits are most prevalent in the general population. In a study of college students, Woods et al. (1996) reported that 15% of students engaged in hair manipulation, 10% nail biting, 22% chewing of their mouth or lips, while 22% reported manipulating objects such as pens or jewelry. Fidgeting is defined as engaging in actions that are peripheral or nonessential to ongoing focal tasks or events (Mehrabian Friedman, 1986); involving engagement in actions, movement or manipulation of ones own body or implementation of actions onto other objects; and can hereby be categorized as a nervous h abit. Woods and Miltenberger (1996) concluded that habits such as hair and face manipulation were present in anxiety- provoking conditions; while object manipulations were recorded when participants felt bored. Three potential explanations exist in relation to how such habits are developed and maintained. Firstly, habits are said to be negatively reinforced by decreasing tension, due to automatic negative reinforcements, such as reduction in anxiety and stress. Secondly, habits provide self- stimulatory advantages, such as increase in concentration or focus, therefore aiding in production of reinforced outcomes. Nervous habits are also hypothesized to represent a group of behaviours that are caused by schedule-induced or adjunctive behaviours occurring as a result of time-based schedules such as fixed-time or fixed-interval schedules (Miltenberger, Fuqua, Woods, 1998), possibly to fill time between reinforces and other behaviours. However, habits do not tend to interfere greatly in a persons functioning, as in some cases they may help the individual focus, concentrate or feel aroused; but are known to cause annoyance to the individual or those around them. In some cases, where the frequency may become excessive; numerous negative outcomes can be attributed to nervous habits. For instance hand related habits can lead to risk of infection; while others cause negative social consequences, such as little or no social acceptance. It is when habits occur frequently or intensely that treatment is sought. Several new behavioural technologies have been developed; through the assessment of treatments using group treatment- outcome and single participant designs as well as several case study experiments; with the latter seen inadequate for drawing valid, scientific interpretations. Controlled single and group experiments, specifically those using repeated, objective measures with reversal or multiple base line designs have been shown to have scientific merit (Peterson, Campise and Azrin, 1994), detailing impacts of treatments on the behaviour. Such treatments have been effective in reducing the frequency of habit disorders by over 90% and eliminating them in 40 to 70% of the cases (Peterson et al., 1994); with habit reversal treatment (HRT) found to be consistent in demonstrating high effectiveness and applicability to a range of habits. Habit reversal involves several components aimed at increasing habit awareness, developing competing responses, building and sustaining motivation and compliance; as well as incorporating operant and anxiety management techniques (Piacentini Chang, 2005) to effectively treat habits. Azrin and Nunn (1973) successfully treated 12 clients who exhibited habits for up to 7 years, through the implementation of the 4 key stages of HRT: awareness training, competing response training, habit control motivation and generalized training. Awareness training included components such as: response description, where clients are asked to describe the details of the habit behaviour; response detection where therapists reported occurrences of the habit to the participant almost immediately after occurrence; an early warning procedure where clients became aware of the earliest signs of the habit and situation awareness where an analysis was implemented to name high-risk situations where the habit may occur. Competing response practice involved the client developing a short and socially acceptable behavioural pattern opposite to the habit, usually through a shaping technique. In the case of nervous habits involving hands; clients were instructed to place his/her hands down by the sides, and to clench their fists until they could feel tension in their arms and hands (Azrin and Nunn, 1973). Motivational procedures such as habit inconvenience and social support procedures were used; with reviews of the inconveniences, embarrassment or suffering experienced implemented; while family members positively reinforced the individuals efforts when habit free periods was noted. Clients were asked to perform the CR correctly in the presence of a councilor, while also taught a symbolic rehearsal technique, where clients imaged habit eliciting situations, their detection of the habit behaviour and performance of the appropriate CR for a required 15 minutes. Clients were also reinforced and remi nded of their habit under more casual situations, and were required to elicit the CR for 3 minutes, a technique known as generalized training. The study reported a significant reduction in habit occurrence of 90% after a single session, with an increase to 99% three months after treatment. Similarly, Azrin, Nunn, and Frantz (1980) investigated the effects of HRT on habits, comparing it to negative practice; a technique similar to HRT, but different, as the habit was performed for 30 second periods over an hour period, each day until four days after the habit was undetectable; while participants were telling themselves they should not be doing the habit. It was reported that the HRT was more effective, as HRT reduced habits by one third. Woods, Miltenberger Lumley (1996) reviewed the effectiveness of awareness training, self-monitoring, social support, and competing responses in 4 children. Woods et al. concluded that, while all stages were successful, self-monitoring should be used as the initial stage in treatment, with other components implemented after awareness has been detected. Additionally, the use of anxiety and operant techniques, have also proven successful in treatment of habits. Anxiety management techniques, such as breathing exercises, muscle relaxation and imagery have been implemented as increases in stress and anxiety lead to concomitant increases in tic frequency, intensity and duration (Cohen, Friedhoff, Leckman, Chase, 1992). Although unsuccessful individually, benefits have been detected in multi-component treatments such as HRT. Similarly, operant techniques, in forms of contingency management, entail the manipulation of environmental contingencies so that tic-free intervals are positively reinforced, and tic behaviors are punished (Piacentini Chang, 2005).They should only be used in instances where a clear relationships between the habit and the environmental contingencies are observed. The aim of this study is to suggest an effective intervention or treatment to reduce the occurrence of object fidgeting in a 19 year old female. It is hoped that through the implementation of this HRT, the habit in question is effectively treated, hereby providing the client with a long term solution. Method Participant The participant of this study was a 19 year old Western, middle class, female undergraduate psychology student who expressed interest in reducing the frequency of a nervous habit, specifically the habit of fidgeting in form of manipulation of an object. Operational definition Fidgeting, in this instance, was the engaging in one particular action, non-essential and external to ongoing tasks. Focus was primarily upon the manipulation of an object; in this case the action of fidgeting with a ring. Actions involved the individual using their right hand or left hand fingers to turn the ring into a circle around the finger of which the ring was present. The instance where the individual may have been moving the ring back and forth while on the finger was also counted. Taking the ring on and off the finger; meaning the individual took the ring off and put the ring back on was not taken into account. Ring fidgeting can be classified as an excess nervous behavior; that is unwanted, and therefore should be decreased in frequency, duration or intensity. This behavior was monitored due to its relative high frequency in Participant Xs everyday life. Selection and justification of monitoring method Assessment of the behavior was achieved through the method of an event recording, self- monitoring method. The participant was asked to record the frequency of the habit over a period of 14 days as well as the time the behavior occurred, when and where it occurred, who was around and what happened before and after the habit was detected. Event recording measures the occurrence, either frequency or duration of a low to medium occurring behavior during a specific time interval. This method was used as event recording has been proven effective when wanting to increase or decrease the occurrence of a habit or behavior, while also allowing the behavior in question to be clearly identified as having a beginning and an end. In this case also the habit did not happen at such an extreme high rate that the event itself was difficult to record. Similarly, a self-monitoring method, while less costly and convenient, could prove ineffective as it is possible the act of self behavioural assessment may actually reduce the frequency of the habit, with the individual becoming highly aware of the behavior; and as a result consciously or subconsciously decrease the act of the behaviour. Results Results obtained from the self-monitoring of Participant Xs ring fidgeting habit over the 14 day, self monitoring period are illustrated in Figure 1 below. As the graph illustrates, participant Xs mean of ring fidgeting (M = 3.93) over the 14 day period proves relatively low. A range between extreme scores of 7 was obtained, while the lowest number of fidgets occurred on Day 14 and the highest on Day 7 of monitoring. It is hypothesized that due to the participants preoccupied nature, no incidences were recorded on day 14 of monitoring. It is possible that the reason for high detection of fidgets on Day 7 could be as a result of Xs high levels of stress and fatigue and anxiety associated with her university lifestyle. The frequency of the behavior increased for the first three days, decreased for a day, increased for the following three days, reaching its peak on Day 7. The behavior then decreased abruptly, occasionally increasing, before leveling off for two days and finally becoming undetectable by the last day of monitoring. Of all days, day 14 proved to be different to the other days of monitoring, with no detection of the habit recorded. Contextual Studying for university exams; recalling facts and information, usually when alone Working on assignments and essays; mainly when researching or planning, even writing, usually alone On the train/ waiting for train to go to university in the morning and afternoon- around people Feeling tired after long day at university or after long day studying; around people and when alone When not really doing anything; waiting to get home on the train, or waiting for the train Immediate Feeling stressed or worried about; exams, too many assignments; a lot to do, little time to do it in Feeling overwhelmed and stressed about amount of work needed to be done for university- things like assignments, studying for exams Frustration when not able to recall facts and information for exams Feelings of boredom when not doing much; usually when knows has much to do- specially when on the train to university or back home; as most of the time it is very busy and cannot do much university work- feels like she is wasting time Feeling annoyed about what is happening in life, even in the rest of the world (war etc)- annoyed at the fact that she may not be doing enough in regards of her assignment work or studying; some instances annoyance may be due to hearing something on the news or reading about something that she may not agree with Feeling tired- usually effects the participant in terms of lack of concentration and allows the patient to lose focus on the task The participant sometimes lacks self-confidence, sometimes feels anxious and uncertain when doing assignment work, university work or when in situations where things seem to go wrong unexpectedly The participant sometimes experiences feelings of overwhelm, annoyance and frustration when unable to do certain tasks; most prominently task relating to her university career Believes that she needs to do well at university and therefore is mindful of what she is required to do; must perform well in order to gain excellent qualifications and therefore build a relatively worthwhile career Knows that her university life depends on her ability to study efficiently; to produce high standard assignments for her psychology courses Also highly believes that what is happening in the world now is going to affect everyone and everything; including her family, her friends and herself- somehow hopes to make a difference which may lead again to the pressure which the patient feels when it comes to her career or in this case- how her university exams and assignments (grades) will impact on her ability to get to that level = pressure = anxiety, stress, frustration and feelings of overwhelm Ring Fidgeting Fidgeting, in this instance, was defined as engaging in one particular action, non-essential and external to ongoing tasks. Focus was primarily upon the manipulation of an object; in this case the action of fidgeting with a ring. Actions involved the individual using their right hand or left hand fingers to turn the ring into a circle around the finger of which the ring was present. The habit was observed during the participants waking hours. Immediate Reduction in anxiety and stress levels = feels calmer and peaceful Reduction in levels of frustration or disappointment Reduction in boredom = preoccupation- has a distraction from her anxiety provoking thoughts; feels like she is doing something and able to fill time Increase in ability to recall facts and information for university exams, ability to work efficiently and faster on assignments Increase in ability to focus and concentrate on the task at hand and make good progress on the task No reduction in level of tiredness; still reports to feel fatigue Reduction in self-consciousness Allows the patient to take time out from her busy life and reflect, possibly clear her thoughts Long Term Possible damage to surrounding skin areas Risk of infection if the behaviour becomes excessive As a result of above consequence; possible inability to write or type Possible loss of feeling if the behavior is excessive As a results of all these, the individual could experience little social acceptance meaning that as a result of the damage to skin areas, which does not look nice and is not very attractive- people around the individual may never make friends or even maybe marry This may lead to depression- as such a problems as being cast out of a social groups, or possibly never having a partner or friends can lead to the patient becoming depressed- feeling down, or feeling like everything may pointless and not worth it Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement Positive Punisher Negative reinforcement Positive Reinforcement Positive Punisher Positive Punisher Negative Punisher Negative Punisher Negative Punisher Positive Punisher As seen in the Table 1 above, participant X is a 19 year old female who has suffered from habitual ring fidgeting for the last year and a half. Historically, X reports the habit to have begun recently; possibly since the commencement of her university life. The behavior may also be as a result of observations, while her busy university lifestyle and lack of sleep may elicit, but not directly cause the occurrence of the habit. Contextually, Xs habit occurs during times when completing university assignments, studying for university tests at home, travelling to and from university or when really not doing anything; and reports feelings of anxiety, stress, worry, annoyance, frustration, fatigue or boredom when performing the behavior. She describes herself as lacking self-confidence, feeling pressured and uncertain at times about her university work, believing that she must perform well, while highly regarding current world events to play a part in her future. X reports that when fidget ing she experiences relief from anxiety, frustration, boredom and self-consciousness; and experiences increased ability to recall facts and information, concentrate and focus and to clear and reflect on her thoughts, but report little change in her level of tiredness. Long term consequences in this instance were not detected; as the client has experienced the habit for a short time. Hereby, based on the immediate consequences it can be said that the relief and increase in abilities which X feels when fidgeting appears to surpass any sort of immediate negative outcome the habit may impose. Discussion The aim of this study was to implement an effective treatment to reduce the occurrence of object fidgeting of a 19 year old female. It is hoped that through the implementation of this treatment the habit in question is effectively reduced and controlled by the participant. Frequency monitoring of the habit suggests that ring fidgeting in this case was not severe, as the mean fidgets over the 14 days were relatively low. The participant reports that she feels stressed, worried, annoyed, frustrated, tired or bored when performing the behavior; but reports that as a result she experiences relief from anxiety, frustration, boredom and self-consciousness; as well as increased ability to recall facts and information, concentrate and focus on the task at hand; but reports little change in her level of tiredness. The findings seem consistent with the literature outlined previously. As pointed out by Woods and Miltenberger (1996), nervous habits are prevalent in anxiety- provoking conditions; with object manipulation habits recorded when participants feel bored. In this case, the habit seemed to have been present in both types of situations, with immediate stimuli including feelings of anxiety, frustration and boredom. Overall, it is evident that in this case the habit was negatively reinforced by a decrease in tension, mainly through negative reinforcements, such as reductions in anxiety, stress and boredom. Additionally, the participant also reported self-stimulatory advantages, with an increase in focus and concentration. Nervous habits were also hypothesized to be caused by schedule-induced or adjunctive behaviours occurring as a result of time-based schedules such as fixed-time or fixed-interval schedules (Miltenberger et al., 1998). It is possible that Xs habit may be a way to fill in time between behaviours in everyday life and normal reinforces, or be due to the specific stimuli or events. Severe and long term consequences due to the habit could not be detected; but it can be postulated that were the habit to occur excessively, X would possibly be at risk of infection, could experience little social acceptance and as a result possibly depression. The frequency of ring fidgeting in this case was relatively small, causing no severe damage or impairment in the short term. But because of the possibility of it becoming over excessive, a modified version of habit reversal treatment could be implemented to reduce the habit. This method is proposed for this case as HRT has been successful in decreasing frequency of habits by 90% after implementation, with further increase after treatment. X will be exposed to the 3 stages of HRT: awareness training, competing response training and habit control motivation; as well as operant and anxiety reducing techniques. X will be exposed to response description, where she will be asked to describe and demonstrate in detail the actions and behaviours of the habit; response detection where those around X would report the occurrence of the habit immediately after each occurrence; an early warning system where the client will be taught to be aware of even the earliest signs of fidgeting and finally s ituation awareness training where the client will be made aware of the high risk situations in which fidgeting may occur. It is known that awareness training would be effective in this case by making the occurrence of the tic an aversive event (via evaluation or demand characteristics) or that monitoring activities serve as punishers for tic expression (Piacentini Chang, 2005), while also reducing frequency of the habit. Participant X will also be asked to develop a short, acceptable competing response, performed on each occasion when the participant feels the urge to fidget; implemented through shaping. In this case the action of placing her hands down by her side, simultaneously clenching her fists until tension is felt in both arms and hands, could serve as her CR. Shaping allows expression of the habit, while not blocking it but rather weakening the severe aspects of the habit behaviour. Appropriately, the habit could be shaped into more normal behaviours, meaning the CR should be designed to slow down the frequency of the habit, with X not eliciting the habit, but rather something different and appropriate, while also providing X with a different physical expression contingent, still allowing the reduction in negative feelings and positive outcomes. As more control is gained over the habit, the CR becomes increasingly more forceful with the ultimate goal of greater tic control (Piacentini Chang , 2005), and therefore fidgeting would be eliminate. In addition, several motivation procedures, including habit inconvenience and social support procedures are suggested. Reviews will be conducted in regards to the inconveniences experienced; allowing a breakdown of symptoms, while also enhancing motivation for treatment and serving as a step forward in the acceptance of the habit. Close individuals will also be asked to reinforce each habit free period and correct use of techniques. In addition to the 3 intervention stages discussed; X will also be exposed to several operant techniques, preferably through the manipulation of environmental contingencies. As there is a clear relationship between the habit and numerous contingencies, the participants habit free intervals, in the contexts where the habit is most frequent; will be positively reinforced each time; through a rewards system; boosting compliance, while ring fidgets would be pointed out but not rewarded. In addition, strategies of reducing anxiety and stress should be introduc ed as a clear relationship exists between stress and anxiety triggers and habit frequency. The participant should be taught possible relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or muscle relaxation, asked to monitor her relaxation levels and instructed to use them before anxiety provoking or stressful events, hereby possibly never eliciting the habit or reducing it greatly. While the above intervention could be used in its entirety, it must be pointed out that the habit of ring fidgeting is was not overly severe. Results did indicate a relatively low mean for the behaviour, which does indicate the habit as present, but only in relatively low frequencies over 14 days. All stages of the treatment above would have been more appropriate if the participant may have actually experienced severe long term consequences, or possibly more punishers in terms of contingencies. As most of the contingencies proved to be reinforces of reductions in negative feelings, it is possible that anxiety management individually, would serve appropriate, as a clear relationship exists between stress and anxiety triggers and habit frequency. Operant techniques and reinforcement of fixed-habit free periods could also prove successful, as X would learn, after some time that a reward would be given each time the desirable behaviour occurs, in this case the absence of the habit. Aware ness training could also have been successful individually, as awareness of the habit to be an aversive event could reduce the habit and also serve as a possible punisher to the participant; hereby decreasing the habit and achieving the goal of this study. Because of the habit was detected as relatively low in frequency, possibly due the fact that X has only experience the habit for a short time; a general HRT treatment would be considered to be inappropriate as such treatment has been successful at treating more long term and highly excessive habits. Additionally, subjective self-monitoring and SORCK analyses used to analyze the patterns of antecedents and consequent events may not serve as valid in this case. Self monitoring in particular could prove ineffective, with a possibility that the act may actually reduce the frequency of the habit, with the individual becoming highly aware of the behavior; and as a result consciously or subconsciously decreasing the act of the behaviour. Similarly, SORCK analyses were in turn based on self- monitoring and recording, and could be deemed equally as subjective. This study was based on the habit frequency of one subject and not a population of the individuals experiencing ring fidgeting. As this is the case, it is highly hypothesized that the data itself could be rather subjective and non representative of the whole population. Many individuals who self monitor may do so incorrectly and subjectively, as some habits are engaged in without awareness and can be missed, while it is also possib le that participants could also underestimate overestimate occurences.

Beauty In The Media Media Essay

Beauty In The Media Media Essay Images of female bodies are everywhere. Women-and their body parts-sell everything from food to cars. Sex has become the selling point of a product, rather than the value of the product or service itself. Everywhere a person turns womens bodies are being graphically used to sell products. Popular film and television actresses are younger, taller and thinner all the time. Quite often they have to starve themselves, and will faint from hunger simply to maintain the body image that seems to be required for a standard of beauty that was set by media. These are the women that young girls are taught to idolize and emulate. Magazines published specifically for women are bursting with articles advising that if a woman can lose those twenty pounds and buy the right makeup and clothing, theyll have everything-a perfect marriage, great sex, loving children, and of course a rewarding career; all it takes is fitting into a mold. Beauty is no longer in the eye of the beholder, it is a set standard that can only be achieved by living up to impossible standards. Women attempt to change their attitudes and appearances to conform to a standard that through years of seeing images in magazines and on television have become normalized to the point where, often unconsciously, they are accepted ideas, values, and standards; for women far more than for men looks are crucial and more defining and it is hard to achieve and maintain the image that media has defined as beautiful. These values of attractiveness are being imposed on women, most of whom are larger and more mature than the actress and models shown, because women allow it to be so. Women allow themselves to try to fit a mold, to live up to that impossible standard. They allow themselves to believe that to be beautiful they have to act raunchy, dress slutty, and be thin, tall, and wear makeup; anything else is not attractive. Men on the other hand do not believe this to be true; as David, a young man in Ariel Levys book Female Chauvinist pigs, points out What girls dont understand is guys always want girls. If every girl dressed casually, youd still like girls(Levy Page 151). Women exhaust themselves living up to a standard they feel must be met in order to be liked, to be loved, or even to be wanted when the simple truth is they would be anyway. If this is the truth, why is it women do exhaust themselves? Some psychologists say the reasons are rooted in economics. Industries that present ideals that are difficult to achieve and maintain, are assured of growth and profits. Meaning, it is not a coincidence that youth and a slim figure are promoted in ads and media. By viewing these images repeatedly there begins to be hegemony, and therefore mentally women believe they actually do need the products that will help them achieve their goals of living up to the ever raising standard. This makes the stakes huge. By showing images of young, thin women made up with beauty products it makes the average women insecure about their own body, and how the male counterpart views the body of an average woman. Women that are insecure concerning their bodies are far more likely to purchase beauty products, new clothes, and diet aids. Research also indicates that constant exposure to images of young, thin, and often air-brushed female bodies is associated to loss of self-esteem, depression, and can lead to the development of unhealthy eating habits in young girls and women. The American research group Anorexia Nervosa Related Eating Disorders, Inc. reports that one out of every four college-aged women uses detrimental methods to control weight; including skipping meals, fasting, self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise, and laxative abuse. The demands to be thin are also influencing young girls: statistics show that these extreme weight control measures are even being used by girls as young as five and six.   Many studies, such as one conducted by Marika Tiggemann and Levina Clark in 2006 titled Appearance Culture in Nine- to 12-Year-Old Girls: Media and Peer Influences on Body Dissatisfaction, indicate that almost half of all preadolescent girls desire to be thinner, and as a result have engaged in some form of unhealthy weight lose. Overall; research suggests that 90% of women are dissatisfied with their body image in some way. Media activist Jean Kilbourne comes to the concl usion that, Women are sold to the diet industry by the magazines we read and the television programs we watch, almost all of which make us feel anxious about our weight. Americans live in a media culture and when that media shows women who they ought to be and it is fed to women in a constant loop of ads, television, and billboards it is increasingly hard to escape. Conceivably the most disturbing factor is the fact that these media images of female attractiveness are unattainable to all but an extremely small percentage of women. When we look at popular icons of beauty it is clear just how unrealistic the standard is. For example, researchers generated a computer reproduction of a woman with the proportions of a Barbie-doll discovered that her back would be too frail to bear the weight of her upper body, additionally her body would be much too narrow to have any more than half a liver and a few centimeters of bowel. A  real woman with those proportions would experience chronic diarrhea and ultimately die from malnutrition. Yet the number of real life women and young girls who seek a similarly underweight body has become an epidemic, and unfortunately they can suffer equally devastating consequences to their health. Sadly, even womens magazines have ten and one-half  times more advertisments and articles promoting weight loss, and showing super thin and gorgeous women than mens magazines do. Furthermore, over three-quarters of the covers of womens magazines incorporate at least one message about how to change a womans appearance to please a man-by diet, cosmetic surgery, beauty products, or exercise. These magazines which ideally would promote better self image, and encourage all body types actually help promote the insecurities that lead to women continuing a self destructive cycle. This image of beauty is seen everywhere. Television and movies also reinforce the significance of a skinny body as the measure of a womans worth. Most of the female characters in TV comedies are underweight, the characters that are above average in size, or even what the average woman would be, tend to be given negative comments from male characters as well as other female characters about their bodies; and often these negative comments are followed by audience laughter. Although women have come a long way and now have a greater knowledge of the body image that media force feeds the effect of the media still has a strong hold on mentality and the lengths women go to achieve the unattainable. Everywhere women look there are images of slim women wearing hardly anything at all with their hair and makeup completely done. One only has to go outside and look at the billboards, turn on a television, or open a newspaper or magazine to experience these types of images. In a recent Macys ad the cover shows the image of Santa Clause; the typical older gentleman dressed from head to toe, while a young, fiery redheaded Mrs. Clause (or perhaps Mistress Clause?) leans in to kiss dear old saint nick; who has a finger up to his lips to whisper silence. Ads like these promote that older men should be with younger women, that secret affairs are sexy, and that young pretty girls are objects of clandestine desires. Other ads do not even try to disguise the sexuality and blatantly flaunt it to the audience. In a recent Volvo ad the manufacture displays the interior of a car, highlighting the parking brake in full upright position; the caption reading We Are Just As Excited As You Are leading a woman viewer to think that she should be excited, and thankfully it is nothing to be ashamed of because the masculine image is also excited. Many advertisements go even further, an Italian coffee ad shows a couple nude, and heavily sexualized in a sea of coffee beans. Ariel Levy says women are not just accepting this supersexualised culture they are fuelling it (Levy), which seems to be the case when a simple look around produces women and young girls wearing next to nothing and women in ads wearing absolutely nothing at all by their own choice. This barrage of main stream media about tin bodies, dieting and a beauty standard tells ordinary women that they are forever in need of modification-and that the female body is merely an object to be perfected. Jean Kilbourne argues that the overwhelming presence of media images of painfully thin women means that real womens bodies have become invisible in the mass media. The real tragedy, Kilbourne concludes, is that many women internalize these stereotypes, and judge themselves by the beauty industrys standards. Women learn to compare themselves to other women, and to compete with them for male attention. This focus on beauty and desirability effectively destroys any awareness and action that might help to change that climate. Sex and beauty are tools to sell more products; the poor body image and low self esteem only help to further sell items to enhance appearances; and slowly this has become an acceptable practice. The way we talk and think about appearances could use a radical makeover.

Electronic File Sharing Essays -- Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Electronic File Sharing Often times new technology enables completely new activities, discoveries, and ways of living, once not possible without that particular technology. An example of this would be the microscope and telescope, which now allow us to see things not possible before. Other times, new technology allows us to do things which we did before, but in a different way.1 A good example of this is electronic file sharing over the Internet. Unauthorized file sharing was possible before the Internet, but on a much smaller scale. One person might have physically borrowed a music cd from another person and made a copy. With the Internet, it became possible for a single person to share (more like distribute without authorization) with the whole world with ease. This has allowed for the much more significant financial damage to the parties being taken advantage of, in this case, the music industry. In my view, this is wrong. Unauthorized file sharing is bad for all parties, whether they know it o r not, and should not be allowed. There are a couple of technologies that have really helped facilitate electronic file sharing. The first one is the MP3 file format. MP3 is a file format (like JPEG, DOC) which is used to store audible data (songs). It is a file compression format that reduces the size of files by 10-12 times. This compression is very valuable in that it allows quicker transfer of songs over the Internet.2 The second one is peer-to-peer architecture. The main characteristic of a pure peer to peer architecture is that peers interact directly with other peers without any centralized servers. This is different from most web applications (like amazon.com), which are client-server architectures. In c... ...on Post, 24 Jan. 2004, . 15. David McGuire, A Winning Strategy on Internet Piracy?, 2004, Washington Post, 24 Jan. 2004, . 16. Santa Clara University, Chapter 6. Ethics, 3. 17. Santa Clara University, Chapter 6. Ethics, 3. 18. Santa Clara University, Chapter 6. Ethics, 3. 19. Santa Clara University, Chapter 6. Ethics, 3. 20. Santa Clara University, Chapter 6. Ethics, 3. 21. BBC, EMI Boss Defends Music Industry, 2003, BBC, 24 Jan. 2004, . 22. BBC, Strong Debut for iTunes for PCs, 2003, BBC, 24 Jan. 2004, .

Humorous Wedding Speech for a Groom in Sales :: Wedding Toasts Roasts Speeches

Humorous Wedding Speech for a Groom in Sales Good evening Ladies and Gentlemen - Today, I'd like to take this opportunity to pay tribute to a man who personifies intelligence, ambition, tact, generosity, and integrity. But it is John’s wedding so it's only fair that I talk about him as well. Laughter Now, I only met John a few years ago at university, meaning that I’ve had to rely on him perhaps more than I would have liked to get the details of his past. But apparently, the young John Cervoni was an exceptionally gifted child. After publishing his first novel at 15, John tells me that his English teacher was left in tears when he opted for the Sciences at A Level. He then reluctantly turned down offers from Harvard and Stanford, in order to study at that other great beacon of learning – State University. But between leaving school and going to State, where I met John, I can only assume that something far too terrible to enquire about must have happened to transform him into the mediocre bum that I know. While at State U. John spent so much time skipping lectures they almost changed his degree to home economics. And when he left, his head of department gave him this reference: ‘Any company who gets Mr. Cervoni to work for them will be very lucky indeed’. So not surprisingly, John has done absolutely nothing to help with the planning of this wedding. At one stage, Melissa got so desperate for help she had me search him for a socket. She wondered if maybe she had to plug him in. Believe it or not, I wasn’t John’s only friend at university. Laughter John developed a close relationship with an African exchange student, named Chimaka. Their relationship was close in the sense that John admired Chimaka’s essay writing abilities and John was kindly always on hand to help Chimaka tidy up his written English. Now Chimaka, who’s father was a tribal elder in Chimakaya and who’s village had donated money to send Chimaka to England, was rather shocked to find himself called into the Dean of Faculties office one morning to explain similarities in his essay to those of John. Two hours later, finding Chimaka on his doorstep threatening suicide, or murder, John's future skills as a salesman came into play. Quoting statistical probability, quantum mechanics and astrology with a straight face, John managed to save both university careers.